Curriculum Development: Process

MODULE 5 Models in Curriculum Development INTRODUCTION Curriculum development is concerned with the drawing up of plans for teaching and learning activities in classroom situations that will bring about positive changes in the lives of the learners. It is based on the school’s mission and goals and identifies ways of translating these into a coherent and coordinated program of meaningful experiences and conditions eliciting responses that will lead to the transformation of the learners into authentic, warm and sensitive human beings (Palma, 1992). Moreover, the all-important process of curriculum development has only one function, and that is, the formation of the â€Å"Ideal Graduate. † This becomes the ultimate measure of the success or failure of the total school enterprise. It should be pointed out, however, that the conception of the â€Å"Ideal Graduate† will vary since it depends on the school’s peculiar clientele, ecology and thrusts. General Objective. To know the different models of curriculum evaluation. Specific Objectives. After reading this module, you should be able to: . Know and understand what is curriculum development. 2. Identify the different models in curriculum development 3. Know and understand the steps in curriculum development. 4. Answer the questions given at the last page of this module. 1. The Michaelis Model The Michaelis model for curriculum development has been named after the principal author of the book New Designs for Elementary Curriculum and Instruction (2nd ed. , 1975 ), by John U. Michaelis. His co-authors were Ruth H. Grossman and Lloyd F. Scott. Although their book is oriented to the elementary level, this model for curriculum development may be adapted to the secondary and tertiary levels. The Michaelis model includes the components generally recognized as essential to curriculum development. It is designed for use in two ways. First, it may serve as a guide to the development or revision of the curriculum. Second, the model may serve as a guide for the review and analysis of the curriculum (Aquino, 1986). Components of the Michaelis Model: (a) Foundations of curriculum development There are five major sources of ideas that serve as the foundations for curriculum planning. The historical foundations are useful in identifying the problem issues, and perspective. An examination of the historical foundations of the curriculum points up threads of continuity as well as instances of rejection of precedents and illustrates the way in which the curriculum, at any point in time, is also a production that time. The philosophical foundations may be drawn upon to develop a framework of values and beliefs related to the goals, the selection and use knowledge and means and methods and other dimensions of education. The social foundations are sources of informations and societal values, changes, problems, pressures and forces that merit consideration in curriculum planning, the Psychological foundation contains ideas about child growth, development and learning on which the program may be based. The disciplinary foundations serve as sources of information about concepts, generalizations, supporting data and modes, methods, and processes of inquiry that may be used in developing the curriculum and planning instruction. (b)Goals and objectives Related to the analysis of the foundations of curriculum development are he major goals of education that gives direction to planning at all levels and in all areas of the curriculum, the objectives must be consistent with, but more specific than goals so that immediate direction is obtained for intuitional planning ad evaluation. The general goals should be cooperatively developed by school personnel and lay persons and be generally acceptable to the commun ity, the objectives should be defended by school personnel with assistance from experts in areas of the curriculum, evaluation, and formulation of objectives so that they will be optimally useful in planning and appraisal activities. Each area of the curriculum should be analyzed to identify its specific contributions to the major goals. This step is helpful in developing a coherent curriculum in which all areas or fields of study are viewed as contributing to the common goals. This step is helpful in identifying the unique contributing that each area can make to the goals and thus makes possible the design of a complete and balanced program of instruction that incorporates aesthetic and others. The objectives of each area may be viewed as a detailed elaboration of contributions to the major goals. Their function is to provide specific direction to program planning. The four sets of interrelated objectives that include the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains are as follows: skill objectives, and affective objectives. Special categories may be used to highlight the contribution of some areas such as, for example visual/tactile objectives, creative expression objectives and aesthetic judgment objectives, objectives in art education within such special categories, however, one may find conceptual, process, skill, and affective in behavioral or performance terms is done to facilitate unit and lesson planning and to evaluate instructional out comes. c) Organization of the curriculum Decisions must be made about the organization of the curriculum, the units within particular areas of curriculum, unit organization, and unit planning procedures, the scope or breadth of the curriculum must be determined and special attention must be given to learning sequences that provide for cumulative learning and the integration of learning. Other decision must be made about curriculum development procedures, broad fields or other patens or organization the roles of curriculum personnel, and the design of curriculum guides. d)Organization and extension of the learning environment The school organization must be considered in terms both the movement of students from level (vertical organization) and of the grouping of students and the placement of teachers at the various levels (horizontal organization). Attention also needs to be given to individualized and personalized instruction organizing and sequencing of group work, and interaction analysis. Variety of ways of extending the learning environment merits consideration, ranging from open education to time and spatial extensions, and the use of the community as a laboratory for learning. Instructional media should be analyzed because of their fundamental importance as key ingredients in the learning environment. The full range of educational technology, including hardware such as equipment and software or courseware such as instructional materials, should be examined and selected in terms of multiple criteria. Provision should be made for instructional media that are useful in all areas of instruction and for special media needed in particular area. A variety of printed materials, audio-visual materials, community resources, learning packages, multi-media sets of materials and multi-level materials should be considered. (e)Instructional support services The implementation of new or revised programs of instruction requires a variety of support services, the quality of leadership essential to sound curriculum development is also essential to implementation. Consultant and supervisory services are needed to help solve general problem and problems related to areas of instruction, other needed services include those related to instructional medial, special education programs the diagnosis and correction of learning difficulties, evaluation, and the in-service education and the instructional staff. (f)Teaching strategies A variety of teaching strategies should be selected or designed for us in the instructional program. There is a need for inductive strategies that include moves from the particular to the general and deductive strategies that include moves from general to the particular. Discovery strategies in which the students themselves find out on their own and teacher-directed strategies in which the students are guided systematically to in stated objectives are needed, along with strategies the call for varying degrees of teacher guidance, combinations of the preceding strategies may be used to be develop and apply concepts, clarify values, and attain other objectives as various media are used in different areas of the curriculum. In additions, construction should be given to the guidelines or principles of instruction for each area of the curriculum. g) Evaluation and accountability Diagnostic, formative and summative evaluations are needed to determine the needs of students assess progress towards objectives during instruction and appraised the outcomes of instruction at the end of given periods. A brad and comprehensive program of evaluation is needed in which a variety of instruments and techniques are used to evaluate the conceptual, process, skill, and e ffective outcomes of instruction. 2. The Tyler Model One of the best known models for curriculum development with special attention to the planning phases is Ralph W. Tyler’s in his classic little book, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, â€Å"The Tyler Rationale†, a process for selecting educational objectives, is widely known and practiced in curriculum circles. Although Tyler proposed a rather comprehensive model for curriculum development, the first part of his model, the selection of objectives, received the greatest attention from other educators. Tyler recommended that curriculum planners identify general objectives by gathering data from three sources: the learner, contemporary life outside the school, and the subject matter. After identifying numerous general objectives, the planners refine these by filtering them through two screens: the educational and social philosophy of the school and the psychology of learning. The general objectives that successfully pass through the two screens become specific instructional objectives. In describing general objectives, Tyler referred to them as â€Å"goals†, â€Å"educational objectives†, and â€Å"educational purposes†. The curriculum developer begins his or her search for educational objectives by gathering and analyzing data relevant to student needs and interests. The total range of educational needs, social, occupational, physical, psychological, and recreational is studied. Tyler recommended observations by teachers, interviews with students, interviews with parents, questionnaires, and tests as techniques for collecting data about students. By examining the needs and interest of students, the curriculum developer identifies a set of potential objectives. Analysis of contemporary life in both the local community and in society at large is the next step in the process of formulating general objectives. Tyler suggested that curriculum planners develop a classification scheme that divides life into various aspects such as health, family, recreation, vocation, religion, consumption, and civic roles. From the needs of society flow many potential educational objectives. It is apparent that the curriculum worker must â€Å"be somewhat of a sociologist to make an intelligent analysis of needs of social institutions. After considering this second source, the curriculum worker has lengthened his/her set of objectives. For a third source, the curriculum planner turns to the subject matter, the disciplines themselves. It should be remembered that many of the curricular innovations of the 1950s the new math, audio-lingual foreign languages, and the plethora of science programs came from the subject matter specialists. From the three aforementioned sources, curriculum planners derived a multiplicity of general or broad objectives which lack precision and which one would prefer to call instructional goals. These goals may be pertinent to specific disciplines or may cut across disciplines. Tyler’s model emphasized the use of educational and social philosophy as the first screen for the goals. He urged the teachers to outline their values and illustrate this task by emphasizing four (4) democratic goals: (a) the recognition of the importance of every individual human being regardless of his race, national, social or economic status, (b) opportunity for wide participation in all phases of activities in the social groups in the society, (c) encouragement of variability rather than demanding a single type of personality, and (d) faith in intelligence as a method of dealing with important problems rather than depending upon the authority of an autocratic or aristocratic group. The application of the psychological screen is the next step in the Tyler model. To apply this, teachers must clarify the principles of learning that they believe to be sound. â€Å"A psychology of learning,† Tyler said, â€Å"not only includes specific and definite findings but it also involves a unified formulation of a theory of learning which helps to outline the nature of the learning process, how it takes place, under what conditions, what sort of mechanisms operate and the like. Effective application of this screen presupposes adequate training in educational psychology and in human growth and development by those charged with the task of curriculum development. After the curriculum planner has applied this second screen, his/her list of general objectives will be reduced, leaving those that are most significant and feasible. Care is then taken to state the objectives in behavioral terms, which turns them into instructional and classroom objectives. After the selection of educational objectives, the Tyler’s model goes beyond this process to describe three more steps in curriculum planning: selection, organization, and evaluation of learning experiences. He defined learning experiences as â€Å"the interaction between the learner and the external conditions in the environment to which he can react. Tyler posited four basic questions for the school, namely: 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? 2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? 3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? 4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not? By addressing the assessment of curriculum development systematically, Tyler introduced the concept of a structural cycle whereby evaluation can lead to a reconsideration of purpose. Such a cycle reduces the somewhat cumbersome process of planning and makes it possible to treat curriculum-making in a systematic manner. The three fundamental elements include: (a) purpose which indicates the goals and directions the school should take, (b) means which suggest the learning experiences and resources that are to be selected, organized, and implemented in pursuit of the purpose, and (c) assessment of outcomes, which measures the degree to which purposes have been met. The following model (Figure 1) shows the systematic view of the curriculum in graphic form: Figure 1. System view of curriculum The three subsystems – Purpose, Means, and Assessment – are enclosed in a circle suggesting that they constitute the totality of curriculum. The circle is also indicative of the continuous process of curriculum development. Curriculum is far from being static. We can never speak of a â€Å"finished curriculum. † Curriculum is always â€Å"tentative† and is meant to undergo a process of development to bring it to ever higher levels of effectiveness. The concurrent process of planning and implementing, evaluating and revising the curriculum goes on in a never-ending cycle always taking into consideration the constantly shifting needs of the learners, the emerging thrusts of the school and its sponsors, the changing expectations of the larger society, and the exigencies of the times. The two-way arrows indicate the dynamic interaction and relationships that should exist among the subsystems if the system is to function well. The arrowheads in the outer circle going counter-clockwise indicate the normal sequence in the process of curriculum planning and development. Logically, the first step should be the determination of purpose and objectives. However, in curriculum development it is possible that one can start with any step. One might even begin with the assessment or evaluation phase. Using the result of this evaluation or assessment, we can examine and make adjustments in the purpose and the means of attaining this purpose. The all-important process of curriculum development is the formation of the â€Å"Ideal Graduate. † 3. The Stufflebeam CIPP Evaluation Model According to Stufflebeam, evaluation is undertaken for the purpose of acquiring fundamental knowledge about the [program, making decisions or judgments, getting data or information as the basis of the program planning intervention. Furthermore, evaluation helps one understand the factors which make which make for success or failure with a view of finding out how the program can be improved (Posner, 1995). The Phi Delta Kappa National Study Committee on Evaluation, chaired by Daniel L. Stufflebeam, produced and disseminated a widely cited model of evaluation known as CIPP (Context, Input, Process, Product) model. Comprehensive in nature, the model reveals types of evaluation, of decision setting of decisions, and of change. In shaping their model, Stufflebeam and his associates defined evaluation in the following way: â€Å"Evaluation is the process of delineating, obtaining, and providing useful information for judging decision alternative†. Stufflebeam clarified what was meant by each of the parts of the definition as follows: 1. Process. A particular, continuing and cyclical activity subsuming many methods and in using a number of steps or operations. . Delineating. Focusing information requirement to be served by evaluation through such steps as specifying, and explicating. 3. Obtaining. Making available through such processes as collecting, organizing, and analyzing, and through such formal means as statistics and measurement. 4. Providing. Fitting together into systems or subsystems that best serve the needs or purposes of the evaluation. 5. Useful. Appropriate to predetermined c riteria evolved through the interaction of the evaluator and client. 6. Information. Descriptive or interpretive data about entities (tangible or intangible) and their relationships. 7. Judging. Assigning weights in accordance with a specified value framework, criteria derived there from, and information which relates criteria to each entity being judged. 8. Decision Alternatives. A set of optional responses to a specified decision question. The evaluation process, said Stufflebeam, includes the three main steps of delineating, obtaining, and providing. These steps provide the basis for a methodology of evaluation. In the flow chart form the model which consists of rectangles (with small loops attached), hexagons, ovals, a circle, a fancy E, solid and broken lines with arrows and three types of shading. Crosshatched, the hexagons show types of decisions, hatched, the ovals, the circle, and the big E depict activities performance; and mottled, the rectangle stands four types of evaluation (Figure 4). Four types of evaluation. The Phi Delta Kappa National Committee pointed to four types of evaluation: Context, Input, Process, and Product, hence the name of the model, CIPP. Context evaluation is the most basic kind of evaluation. Its purpose is to provide a rationale for determination of objectives. At this point in the model, curriculum planner-evaluators define the environment of the curriculum, and determine unmet needs and reasons why needs are not being met. Goals and objectives are specified on the basis of context evaluation. Input evaluation is that evaluation of the purpose of which is â€Å"to provide information for determining how to utilize resources to achieve project objectives†. The resources of the school and various designs for carrying out the curriculum are considered. At this stage, the planner-evaluators decide on procedures to be used. Process evaluation is the provision of periodic feedback while the curriculum is being implemented. It has three main objectives – the first is to detect or predict defects in the procedural design or its implementation stages. The second is to provide information for programmed decisions, and the third is to maintain a record of the procedure as it occurs. Product evaluation the final type, has as its purpose â€Å"to measure and interpret attainments not only at the end of a project cycle, but often as necessary during the project term†. The general method of project evaluation includes devising operational definitions of objectives, measuring criteria associated with the objective of the activity, comparing these measurements with predetermined absolute or relative standards, and making rational interpretations of the outcomes using the recorded context, input and process information. Four types of decision. The hexagons represent four types of decision: Planning, Structuring, Implementing, and Recycling. Note that planning decisions follow context evaluation; structuring decision follow input evaluation; implementing decisions follow process evaluation; and recycling decision follow product evaluation. Three types of changes. In these setting, three types of changes may results: neomobilistic, incremental, and homeostatic. Neomobilistic change occurs in a setting in which a large change is sought on the basis of low information. These changes are innovative solutions based on little evidence. Incremental changes are a series of small changes based on low information is so rare that it is not shown in the CIPP model. Homeostatic change goes back to structuring decisions. The model plots the sequence of evaluation and making from context evaluation to recycling decisions. The committee has touched up the model with small loops that lock like bulbs on the evaluation blocks to indicate that the general process of delineating, obtaining, and providing information is cyclical and applies to each type of evaluation. The ovals, the circle, and the E in the model represent types of activities, types of change, and adjustment as a result of the evaluations made and decision taken. The CIPP model presents a comprehensive view of evaluation process. Said the Phi Delta Kappa Committee: â€Å"To maximize the effectiveness and efficiency of evaluation, evaluation itself should be evaluated†¦the criteria for this include internal validity, expervasiveness, timeliness, and efficiency†. 5. The Taba Model Taba took what is known as a grass-roots approach to curriculum development. She believed that the curriculum should be designed by the teachers rather than handed down by higher authority. Further, she felt that teachers should begin the process by creating specific teaching-learning units for their students in their schools rather than by engaging initially in creating a general curriculum design. Taba, therefore, advocated an inductive approach to curriculum development, starting with specifics and building up to a general design as opposed to the more traditional deductive approach of starting with the general design and working down to the specifics. To improve and refine the Tyler model, Hilda Taba listed a five-step sequence for accomplishing curriculum change, as follows: 1. Production by teachers of pilot teaching-learning units representative of the grade level or subject area. Taba saw this step as linking theory and practice. She proposed the following eight-step sequence for curriculum developers who are producing pilot units: a) Diagnosis of needs. The curriculum developer begins by determining the needs of the students for whom the curriculum is being planned. Taba directs the curriculum worker to diagnose the â€Å"gaps, deficiencies, and variations in students’ backgrounds. † b) Formulation of objectives. After students’ needs have been diagnosed, the curriculum planner specifies objectives to be accomplished. Interestingly, Taba uses the terms â€Å"goals† and â€Å"objectives†. c) Selection of content. The subject matter or topics to be studied stem directly from the objectives Taba pointed out not only must the objectives be considered in selecting content but also the â€Å"validity and significance† of the content chosen. d) Organization of content. With the selection of content goes the task of deciding at what levels and in what sequences the subject matter will be placed. Maturity of learners, their readiness to confront the subject matter, and their levels of academic achievement are factors to be considered in the appropriate placement of content. e) Selection of learning experiences. The methodologies or strategies by which the learners are involved with the content must be chosen by the curriculum planners. Pupils internalize the content through the learning activities selected by the planner-teacher. f) Organization of learning activities. The teacher decides how to package the learning activities and in what combinations and sequences they will be utilized. At this stage, the teacher adapts the strategies to the particular students for whom he or she has responsibility. g) Determination of what to evaluate and of the ways and means of doing it. The planner must decide whether objectives have been accomplished. The instructor selects from a variety of techniques and appropriate means for assessing achievement of students and for determining whether the objectives of the curriculum have been met. h) Checking for balance and sequence. Taba counseled curriculum workers to look for consistency among the various parts of the teaching-learning units for proper flow of the learning experiences, and for balance in the types of learning and forms of expression. 2. Testing experimental units. Since the goal of this process is to create a curriculum encompassing one or more grade levels or subject areas and since teachers have written their pilot units with their own classrooms in mind, the units must now be tested â€Å"to establish their validity and teach-ability and to set their upper and lower limits of required abilities. . Revising and consolidating. The units are modified to conform to variations in student needs and abilities, available resources, and different styles of teaching so that the curriculum may suit all types of classrooms. Taba would charge supervisors, the coordinators of curricula, and the curriculum specialists with the task of â€Å"stating the principles and theoretical considerations on which the structure of the units and the selection of content and learning activities are based and suggesting the limits within which modifications in the classroom can take place. Taba recommended that such considerations and suggestions might be assembled in a handbook explaining the use of the units. 4. Developing a framework. After a number of units have been constructed, the curriculum planners must examine them as to adequacy of scope and appropriateness of sequence. The curriculum specialist would assume the responsibility of drafting a rationale for the curriculum which has been developed through this process. 5. Installing and disseminating new units. So that the teachers may effectively put the teaching-learning units into operation in their classrooms, Taba called on administrators to arrange appropriate in-service training. Taba’s inductive model may not appeal to curriculum developers who prefer to consider the more global aspects of the curriculum before proceeding to specifics. Some planners might wish to see a more comprehensive model that includes steps both in diagnosing the needs of society and culture and in deriving needs from subject matter, philosophy, and learning theory. Taba elaborates on these points in her final text. 6. Palma’s Linear Model of Curriculum Development Using Tyler’s Rationale and Taba’s paradigm, Palma (1992) formulated the following linear model including four subsystems (Figure 2). Figure 2. A Linear Model of Curriculum The curriculum model above suggests end-means integration. This model clearly shows that curriculum and instruction are not separate independent components but contiguous parts of a continuum or system. They are two-sides of the same coin, you cannot have one without the other. The curriculum component represents the thought plan aspect of curriculum development which includes the selection and organization phases while the instruction component is the means-action part consisting of the implementation and evaluation phases. Subsystem I indicates the direction and intention of the educational effort. This includes the School Vision or the set of unifying beliefs and values according to which the school personnel behave and perform their roles individually and collectively. This is eventually translated into the Mission Statement and further delineated in the school-wide and level goals and finally translated into learning objectives contained in the units of instruction and individual lessons. Subsystem 2 is the learning content. The learning goals are fleshed out in a continuum or scope and sequence of learning content in terms of knowledge and understanding, skills and competencies, attitudes and values which become the basis of subject matter for instruction and mastery. As one student puts it matter-of-factly, this is the â€Å"stuff that kids must learn in school. The school expects every student to master these basic requirements of school learning content which define the standards against which every prospective graduate will be measured. Subsystem 3 is made up of learning experiences, activities and resources which constitute the where-withal for attaining the learning objectives. Working on the principle that â€Å"he who wants the end, wan ts the means,† the school employs the most relevant and effective strategies and resources that will ensure mastery of learning content. All these are indicated in a plan of instruction, both on the unit and the lesson level, to be carried out in the classroom. Subsystem 4 has to do with measurement and evaluation of learning outcomes. The evaluation reveals whether the objectives are being attained or not and at what level. And more importantly, if objectives are not being met according to acceptable levels or standards, why these are not being met and what should be done about it. This is indicated by the feedback loop. Curriculum Development for Higher Education in the Philippine Setting The Rogelio V. Cuyno observed that life is by itself a curriculum. The small day-to-day experiences add up to a total experience which make us what we are. We learn from them. We become somebody because of these experiences. A curriculum is like life. The only difference is that an educational is purposive, designed by specialist and educators. The day-to-day events and activities in our lives are largely shaped by random forces which are beyond our control. Learning comes out of the necessity to survive and to adapt to the demands and contingencies of the external environment. Such is not the case in a university environment. The experiences that students are made up to undergo are not random but carefully structured and planned towards meeting a goal, guided by theories and by tested principles. A faculty curriculum design will reveal itself in performance of graduates in the job market or world of work and in adult social life. Designing a curriculum for higher education of the tertiary level in the educational hierarchy is hereby presented. This unit is intended for university teachers, administrators and those in the non-formal system of education who is or will be reviewing and revising a specific course within a college curriculum or preparing a new curriculum. The UP Mindanao Campus Experience The aim of curriculum developers is to produce graduates who will behave as the curriculum aimed them for, who will be relevant to the world of work, who will be efficient and who will have flexibility and plasticity to withstand a shifting job market and environment realities. Specifically, this unit aims to make the participants: 1. Identify and discuss concepts in curriculum planning; 2. Cite and explain elements in a curriculum; 3. Formulate educational objectives following norms and practices in education; 4. Identify and discuss the different factors to consider in curriculum planning; and; 5. Outline and discuss the procedures in curriculum development. Content A. Concepts 1. Definition of curriculum planning A curriculum is a series of planned experiences that a learner is made to undergo in a given period to achieve a given goal. It involves direct teaching where the teacher gives structured technical inputs on a face to face basis or through assigned tasks. There are also educational experiences which are meant not to impart a professional stock of knowledge and skills of a craft but to mold the character, internalize universal moral values, hone social and organizational skills, or appreciate the finer things in life. This is often called extra-curriculum activities or those activities outside the formal courses. Even this is programmed and deliberate rather than accidental or a product of afterthought. Planning the curriculum involves determining the aim of education; identifying the students to whom the system will be geared; deciding what to teach and how these are sequenced; providing organizational and logistical support so that the teaching process can be managed efficiently; and, insuring that the curricular and extra-curricular component are interrelated. 2. Tripodal source of influence The structured of a curriculum is formed in response to three sources of influences: the learner’s systems; the teacher and knowledge system; and society or the market for the products of the curriculum (Figure 3). For the learner system, we need to know the entry level of the learners in terms of their preparation in the prior educational level. A curriculum may be too difficult resulting in failures if the curriculum of the previous lower school system where students came from is deficient. On the other hand, the higher education curriculum might be boring because the courses are too easy and familiar to students who have covered the subjects sufficiently in the secondary level. Learner System Teacher- The Market Knowledge and Society System Figure 1. Tripodal Influence in Curricular Design The teacher-knowledge system refers to the stock of knowledge, tools and skills in the discipline that an incoming professional is expected to posses. Due to advances in research and practice of the profession and the changes in educational objective, the present curriculum would be more updated than the previous one. Finally, due to changing technology being used at the world of work and the new demands of employers, the market require that the curriculum be realigned to these new realities. For example, nowadays, students need to be computer literate because employers are requiring the skills. New medical curricula for community practice have now to be more of a general practitioner type than before. Those studying agriculture today have learn about environmental sustainability, farming systems, food systems, agribusiness and political economy, because society expects them to be enlightened on these issues. 3. Economy and Self-Sufficiency The curriculum must be designed to enable the learner to assimilate the subject sufficiently and as economically as possible. Scheffler (1958) wrote about three types of economy: †¢ teaching effort and resources †¢ learners effort and resources; and economy of subject matter The last type needs further explanation. Economy of subject matter refers to maximum generalizability or transfer value. To be economical in this sense is to learn subjects to facilitate other learning. For example, math and physics should facilitate learning chemistry and genetics. Not only that, content should â€Å"enable the learner to take responsible personal and moral decisions†. 4. Integration of Subjects Whitehead (Frankena, 1965) enunciated two commandments in curriculum planning â€Å"Do not teach too many subjects† and â€Å"What you teach, teach thoroughly†. Teaching many subjects which are disconnected is fatal to further learning. It could lead to passive reception of ideas and confuse the learners. Thorough teaching could lead students to discern relationships and application and the connection of the present to the past and the future. The thorough learning of the scientific method, for example, could lead to discovery of an inner logic which applies to problem-solving and decision making in the field of management. 5. Principle of Option Most young people go to college without really knowing what they would want to become later in life. Hence, besides the General Education subjects outside the major field. Such subject may comprise what is known as the minor or cognate or electives and which we shall term as option subjects. The other function of option subjects is that the students can pursue fields which are personally interesting and fulfilling and in the process develop certain natural talents and inclinations. The implication of all these in curriculum development is that it is better to emphasize teaching of tools, collecting, organizing and processing information rather than memorizing of facts and defining things. 6. Aim of Education A curriculum is a means to achieve an educational goal. In the normative theory of education, the content, activities and process of instruction must serve the end goal. This will lead to us to the study of philosophy of education. To Dewey (Frankena, 1995), the aim of education is to promote growth. According to him, growth is dependent on increased control by the self. It refers to â€Å"having an end† instead of â€Å"being the end†. Possession of intellectual ability and the knowledge of how to learn empower an individual to pursue personal growth. Learning here is viewed as a lifelong process. Dewey defines education as a continuous â€Å"reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the deepening of meaning of experience, and which increases ability to direct the course of subsequent experience†. Whitehead (Frankena, 1965) viewed the aim of education as â€Å"producing men and women who posses both culture (including philosophy and art) and expert knowledge in some special direction†. Whitehead believed that the learner should be helped and made to experience the joy of discovery for that is what life is all about. Whitehead was an exponent of problem focused learning. He believed that the mind is an instrument that need to be sharpened and that it is never passive but active in perpetuity, receptive and responsive to stimuli. The mind can not be told â€Å"learn this now, you will need it later†. The implication in curriculum design is that theory and practice and the mental and physical components should be integrated. Because education is â€Å"life in all its manifestations†, Whitehead advocate wholeness in education which assumes that behind all living things is interconnections. Another educational philosopher worth noting for his thoughts on the goal of education is Maratain (Frankena, 1965). He said that the aim of education is to guide the learner to shape himself as â€Å"a human person-armed with knowledge, strength of judgment, and moral virtues-while at the same time conveying to him the spiritual heritage of the nation and civilization†. B. Elements of a Curriculum A curriculum has a structure which is made up of elements. For the structure to take shape the elements must have harmony and internal consistency. Otherwise, it will appear disjointed and discordant just like when musical notes do not blend. The elements of the curricular structure are: †¢ Objectives; †¢ Content; †¢ Method of procedure; Requirement; and †¢ Extra curricular activities. 1. Objective In contrast to educational aim or goal, the objective element of the curriculum is more operational and observable. The objective can be found in the analysis of the courses and in the various teaching units. At the end of the teaching procedure, the teacher or any external evaluator can refer back to the objective to determine if the procedure was effective. Objective is the learning destination toward which the teacher tries to bring the learner to: Educators use ABCD as guide on how to formulate a learning objective stated from the side of the learner: A = Stands for audience or the students. There is a need to direct or target the objective towards a known participant, e. g. , â€Å"For all the first year students to . . . . . . . † B = Stands for Behavior or an overt/visible activity the students should be doing if learning indeed has taken place. If stated in an overt behavioral terms, it is easy to measure if change had taken place. E. g. , â€Å"For first year students to enter a statement in the computer . . . . . â€Å" C = For condition or the assumption and parameters that have to be provided by the teacher so that the students will feel the experience. E. g. , given a working PC, all first year students should be able to enter a statement in it. D = For degree of visible achievement. This is commonly referred to as quantifiable indicator of learning. E. g. , Given a working PC, all first year students must be able to enter a statement in the computer allowing 5% error. 2. Content Content in a curriculum is the body of knowledge, tools, skills, (psychomotor, manual and mental) and attitude that the teacher intends to pass on to the students or wants the students to develop. Put concisely, content is what is intended to be learned. A good curriculum is one which allows students to explore and learned content beyond what is prescribed. As discussed earlier in the section on philosophy of education, a course not only prepares a student for a profession or job but to become complete human being and citizen of the country. The choice of content should follow the aim of the curriculum. Universities perform research to expand the knowledge-base of the profession or widen the general state of the art, science and technology that will catalyze and become the cutting edge of the economy. Such outputs of research should also be channeled to and enrich content thus making the curriculum more dynamic and up-to-date. 3. Method and Activities Method is how the content element should be taught or how the experience should structure so that the student will acquire and discover the content. It is the procedure of instruction that can take place not only in school but also outside-in the industry, society, community and at home. Many educational philosophers, among them, Dewey and Whitehead, believed that application of theory and principle should not be delayed to a much later time but should be experienced here and now. They also believed that activities must be relevant to the real world. The teaching procedure in a curriculum should attempt to bridge academe with industry and society, theory with practice. Thus there should be a reinforcement, supplementation and complementation among the different methods of instruction such as; lecture, discussion, apprenticeship, library work, independent study, individual and group work. 4. Integrative Requirements The final requirements of a curriculum are usually in the form of thesis, special project, internship, practicum, rural service and volunteer work. The purposes of such requirement are: to provide opportunity for integration, for deepening of knowledge and application, exposure to the real world or to facilitate one’s induction to a profession. 5. Extra Curricular Activities In our previous discussion, we referred to extra-curricular activities as outside the curricular structure. But in terms of the principle of total learning experience in higher education which we favor here, here is important to consider extracurricular work as part of curriculum. Being a variable, extra curricular activities influence attainment of the educational aim as they tend to reinforce and strengthen teaching of content and values. C. Factors in Curriculum Design Earlier we cited and discussed the elements of a curriculum. This time there is a need to identify the factors that influence how the elements will be structured. 1. Industry Young people to challenge because they eventually want earn and make a living-either working for an employer or for themselves. In any case, after college, they’ll have to belong to an industry. Industry is the market for college graduates. Naturally, if the graduates have to fit the requirement of industry, they have to be prepared for it through the courses in the curriculum that they enroll in. If the needs of industry are for more practical skills, the curriculum will pay more attention to practical skills; the curriculum will pay more attention to practical skills. It is a simple case of demand and supply. 2. Economy Industry and economy are closely linked. The economy has a direct way of attracting certain skills and it creates expectations, hopes and aspirations. If the economy is on the rise due to contribution of a certain sector, people would move towards that sector. Economy provides ambience to a profession. Hence the curriculum developers could not and should not ignore it. As an example, there is a proliferation of computer schools, computer-related courses and the field of information science because of the large contribution of this field of information science of the large contribution of this field to the country’s economy. 3. Competition Competition has a way of extracting the best from the system. If curriculum â€Å"A† is drawing students’ attention at the expense of curriculum â€Å"B†, curriculum B has no choice but to shape up. Otherwise that curriculum will have nothing but empty chairs and the school will go under. Schools go into self-improvement or externally induced-improvement through curricular reviews. Administrators than use the recommendation of the review group as leverage to change or reform the curriculum. 4. Government Policy In many countries, the Philippines included, some courses are required to be part of the curriculum through legislation or force of law. Recently the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) which oversees higher education in the country received severe criticism from leaders in culture a history including newspaper columnists. It was because of perceived non-implementation or lack of heart to implement the teaching of â€Å"Rizal and His Works† in the tertiary level of education. 5. Previous Level and Students Capability The quality and the structure of the secondary level curriculum have an impact on the tertiary level curriculum. If most of the in-coming freshman is deficient in certain subjects like Mathematics or English or Science, the college curriculum has to be adjusted to correct the deficiency. This can be done through remedial courses or adding more subjects. Students with advanced proficiency in Mathematics, science or English, on the other hand, are accelerated to higher courses. 6. Culture Education in a generic sense refers to the total social process by which the individual acquire beliefs, acceptable behavior, standards and values, and a way of living in society. Only a small portion of how one is educated actually is due to the school system. Schools being one of the teaching institutions in society have an obligation to help preserve, promote and enhance the culture of a particular society which constitutes the bedrock of national identity and the moral foundation of the people. As pointed out earlier, a curriculum must have a common universal content that has to be taught as part of the socialization process and a means for social control. This must embrace the most crucial and significant ideas and major themes in the national consciousness. A curriculum exists within a culture. The two, curriculum and culture, therefore are interwoven. As culture undergoes transformation in time, so must the curriculum. In this way, a curriculum exists in the service of the nation and of society. D. Professional, General and Post-Graduate Education Many years back, educators and philosophers debated over whether college education should be more for professional development or for liberal education. The two aims of education were thought of as being on opposite poles. That is, if the curriculum is slanted to general education, there is ess professional training and vice versa. If there is a bias for professional education, something is taken away from general education. At the University of the Philippines this was resolved with the institution of General Education courses. General Education (GE) makes the individual a whole person, able to cope with multi-dimensional aspects of life-relationship with the natural environment, social life , economic well-being, cultural roots and identity, developments and advances in science and technology, relationships with political-legal institutions and contributing to political maturity and responsiveness. Moreover, GE trains the person to be a life-long learner and equips the person with analytical and explanatory tools as well as methods of observing, organizing of observations and then making decision and judgments. In other words, the student learns to identify and solve problems and scientific way. In the University of the Philippines Mindanao, where the author is the Dean, we review our curricula as somewhere in the middle of the continuum of general and professional education. Our aims are to prepare a person to be a professional with continuing proficiency in his/her craft, and able to induce productivity and growth of the enterprise. At the same time, the person should be aware and must internalize social and political responsibility, conservation and sustainability of natural endowment and feel his cultural heritage. He must not neglected to appreciate the finer things in life-the â€Å"good and the beautiful† and must contribute to make his surroundings a decent place to live in. In the teaching of the craft or the tools, knowledge and skills in the profession, we believe that the teacher must not only teach content but must inculcate a liberal attitude to his craft. That is, being open minded, creative, a problem-solver and change agent. E. Procedures in Curriculum Development As pointed out earlier, curriculum, culture, science and technology, industry and the economy and legal-political reality are interwoven. The curriculum, therefore, has to be dynamic. There must be a formal mechanism for internal and external reviews. Internally, the university/college must be sensitive to any discontinuity in society. Globally it must be sensitive to new opportunities in the environment. All these changes have to be watched, anticipated and even enhanced. A senior official of the university must be made responsible for this function. Logically, this task will fall on the Office of Academic Affairs or of Planning and Development Office. A system wide recommendatory committee is usual appointed to do a fact to environmental changes and opportunities. External reviews need more time to prepare. In addition to representatives from faculty, non-academic staff and students, representatives from industry, government, NGO, and the professions as well as parents compose this committee. The recommendation is usually validated in a forum with invited reactors. Curriculum Planning What is curriculum planning? Objectives #4, under section 4, â€Å"declaration of objectives† of the Education Act of 1982 that the educational system aims to respond effectively to changing need and conditions of the nation through a system of education planning and evolution†. Bernard M. Reyes (1974) explains the nature and scope of educational planning as follows: Education planning is an instrument for providing the needed coordination and direction of the different components of an education system and ensures that widely accepted long-term goals, such as universal primary education, are approached more objectively. It provides realistic appraisal of the country’s resources (material human and institutional) which is and important factor in the successful implementation of the plan. Though education planning, a country indicates its willingness to effect an orderly change or reforming its education system by bringing into focus the shortcoming or needs that hitherto had been ignored or unknown and so that appropriate action can be affected coupled with the proper allocation of energies and resource to their sector. Educational planning takes into account the past and present realities of the country’s education and training programs. It is commonly preceded by survey of the educational situation and needs. Well-organized statistics services are necessary to provide essential and reliable data. To ensure the full acceptance and implementation of the plan, person who is to implant the plan, such as school administrators, supervisors, teachers, other personnel, should participate in the formulation of the plan (Reyes, 1974). Reyes attributes to Boquiren (1965) certain accepted principles on which educational planning is based, among which are first, that planning is a high-level staff function professional guidance of the authorities in the determination of educational goals and the evolving of the educational goals and evolving of educational policies and their execution; (2) that education planning involves all levels of education of both public and private sector and the related economic and financial agencies of the nation; (3) education planning must be a comprehensive and continuous process and must be periodically evaluated (Reyes, see Manuel, Guerrero, and Sutaria, 1974). According to Reyes, the essential elements of educational planning are: 1. Quantitative planning. This covers all questions involved in the expansion of educational facilities based on pedagogical, demographic, geographical, economic, and social factors. Quantitative planning makes references to school population (enrollment, dr op out, and promotion) the recruitment of teachers and supervisors, and the provision of classrooms and equipment (furniture, laboratories, etc. ). 2. Qualitative planning. This covers aims, content, and methods of ducation, curricular planning (the levels and branches), teacher training, educational guidance, research, and textbooks and other teaching aids. 3. Administrative planning. This is concerned with the needs and assets, costs, sources or finance or distribution or expenditures (recurrent expenditures and capital investment), grants, and loans. In education planning, two approaches are: involved the macro approach and the minor approach. The macro approach refers to the over-all planning which is primarily concerned with the aggregates in the education system; e. g. , new enrollment at the various level, numbers of schools to be constructed, etc. the macro approach, on the other hand, lays emphasis on the individual component which go to make up the educational system. The essential steps in the planning process are: 1) statement of objectives; 2) diagnosis of the present situation; 3) formulation of the plan; 4) implementation; and 5) evaluation. Varied terms used in the literature There are varied terms used in the literature in connection with the curriculum planning process. Among such terms are curriculum developing, curriculum improvement, curriculum study, curriculum making, and of course curriculum planning. As far as the term curriculum development is concerned many authors have used, and continue to use, this term. Bernardino and Fresnoza (1963), for example, state that curriculum development involves three kinds of activities: 1) planning the experiences to be utilized, 2) reorganizing them in program, and 3) evaluating the curriculum thus developed. In doing all of these, they explain further, attention is given to the ultimate purposes of education, to the more immediate objectives, to the various aspects of child and to the other factors associated with teaching (Bernardino and Fresnoza, 1963). To Agoncillo (1977), curriculum development should be regarded as â€Å"a practical inquiry† the outcome of which is to specify the means for carrying out and educational intent or purpose. Such an inquiry should focus attention on purposes, goals, and objectives on a continuum from levels of generality to specify: on materials, media and resources to be employed on plans of action at various levels and various educational situations; and finally, on the evaluative measures for various specific purposes (Agoncillo, 1977). By the very nature of the curriculum, its development is a decision-making process for many people. It affects a number of people, the pupil or learner, who is the focal point of the entire endeavor, the teacher, who is the primary implementer, the parents who after all will foot the educational bill; the administrator/supervisor, who is responsible for the leadership; and society in general, which will be the ultimate recipient of the educational output (Socrates, 1977). According to Socrates, there are many principles underlying curriculum development, but one basic principle stands out namely that the curriculum should be planned. In his own words: â€Å"there is simply no substitute to planning-systematic planning† (p. 3). Consequently, Socrates adds, if systematic planning undertaken, there are other principles which answer four basic questions: 1) who plans the curriculum? (principle of cooperation); 2) When is the curriculum planned? (principle of continuity); 3) What are planned? (principle of comprehensiveness); and 4) How is the curriculum planned? (the principle o f systematic approach). In addition Socrates states that curriculum development has certain stages or phases (a) identifying objectives; (b) structuring learning experience; (c) deciding on content; (d) organization; and (e) evaluation. Stratemeyer et al. (1957) state that there are at least three facets to curriculum improvement: first, continuous appraisal of the existing program in terms of emerging needs; second, changes where evaluation indicates they are required; and third, the operation of and effective ongoing educational program while making changes. Conceived in this manner, curriculum improvement is a ceaseless process, flourishing in a dynamic, flexible educational environment in which security and stability exist without complacency or crystallization. To these writers, curriculum improvement is a process which suggests a continuous study of programs. Aquino presents the following as part of the considerations in curriculum planning and organization: INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT Besides, in developing a curriculum consideration must be given to the factors that should determine the nature of the education to be provided to the children and youth in the schools. Next the educator faces the responsibility of actually developing a curriculum. What kind of experience shall be planned for pupils? How these units for experiences shall is organized? What kind of curriculum should the school provide so that pupils may attain the objectives of education it has defined? These decisions become the curriculum plan. Such plan defines the nature of the educational experiences to be provided pupils, the methods of selecting and organizing the elements of the curriculum into coherence and unified program of education, and the place in the education of the child and the sequential arrangement in which the elements of the curriculum are to be developed. A plan for the curriculum is essential efficiently to the attainment of the outcomes sought for the pupils. The curriculum of the school is encompassed within the following aspects of educational program: 1. The class programs of the school, which utilize bodies of contend selected and organized on some predetermined structure. 2. Extra classroom activities. 3. Services provide by the school, such as guidance, health, library, food, and transportation services, and special services fro exceptional children. 4. The social life of the school and the interpersonal relationships among pupils and teachers. 5. Organizational policies and procedures for providing the instructional program. Organization of learning content Curriculum design refers to how the curriculum content is organized and laid for purposes of instruction; this is intended to accomplish orderly and meaningful coverage of content so as to bring about the cumulative effect of education in terms of residual or habitual leaning. This also ensures economy through optimum use of time and effort, efficiency through and orderly and systematic progression of learning and affectivity in obtaining the desired learning outcomes. In organizing curriculum content we are usually guided by the following complementary basic principles: 1. Balance. This refers to the equitable and fair distribution of content among the different level of instruction to ensure that no level is unduly overburdened or under burdened. 2. Articulation. This refers to provisions for establishing the vertical from level to level. This way we can avoid the glaring â€Å"gaps† and wasteful â€Å"overlaps† in subject matter and ensure and unbroken chain of learning. Proper articulation promotes team work among the instructional staff and will prevent the perennial â€Å"blaming syndrome† so prevalent in schools where this principle is not observed. 3. Sequence. This term is used to describe the sequential and graded arrangement of subject matter. It refers to a deepening and broadening of content as it is taking up on the higher levels. The term Spiraling has been used to denote this idea of sequence. For instance, a senior high school class will take up paragraph writing but at a more sophisticated and advanced level than a first year class. 4. Integration. This denotes the horizontal link or content in related subjects’ areas. There is integration where an individual is able to connect what he is learning in a subject area to a related content in another subject area. Thus concepts and skill learned in Math (e. g. geometric in science). The quality of schooling improves as learners are able to integrate their learning instead of acquiring isolated fragments of information. Ruing isolated fragments of information. Integration helps a person to get a unified view of reality and to use it to improve his total behavior pattern and outlook in life. 5. Continuity. This refers to a constant and consistent repetition, review and reinforcement of major learning elements to bring about mastery or â€Å"executive control† of subject matter. Learning is not a one-shot activity and requires continuing application for the new knowledge, skill or attitude or value to endure habitual use in daily living. Conclusion: Thus, it is useful for leaders to consider the need of curriculum development incorporated with, planning, articulating and developing, implementing as pointed above. Questions to Answer 1. Having taken a course in curriculum- instruction, you are now task to enrich the existing curriculum/program of the school/agency where you are employed, how do you go about it? Enumerate the steps and discuss on how you are going to work on this task. 2. Due to changes taking place in the society in what considerations would you provide in the curriculum to meet the needs of the day and why? 3. Explain why in organizing the curriculum content, we should be guided with the basic principles in organizing curriculum content and if not considered what is likely going to happen? ———————– PURPOSE IDEAL GRAUATE MEANS ASSESSMENT Instruction Components Curriculum Component Subsystem 4 Subsystem 3 Subsystem 2 Subsystem 1 Learning Experiences Evaluation Of Learning Outcomes Learning Objectives Learning Content Feedback loop Learning Activity With a colleague, discuss the issue of â€Å"how far should the curriculum designer accommodate the demands of the market†. Learning Activity Figure out another example of â€Å"economy of subject matter† as explained above. Learning Activity Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? â€Å"It’s better to load students with more sub

English: Pet and Dogs

Dogs have always been called â€Å"man’s best friend. † Studies have shown this to be true and dogs are the better pet especially over a cat. Although dogs and cats are both wonderful house pets, dogs are more intelligent and easier to train than cats, and dogs are also far more loving and loyal than most cats will ever be. When it comes to training, dogs are by far easier and more trainable than cats. Have you ever seen a cat sit or meow on command? Even though dogs do have a longer training period than cats do, there are many more tricks and commands owners can teach them. The article â€Å"New Scientist study finds dogs are better than cats† says that â€Å"Dogs can also follow human gestures, such as an outstretched finger or a nod of the head to find food† (Zoidberg). Dogs are also more sociable and playful than that of a cat as well. They would rather be left alone most of the day taking cat naps and scratching on household furniture. On the other hand dogs would rather be with someone playing in the yard, chasing a ball, or going on walks in the park. The best choice for a family pet would defiantly be a dog since they are the easiest to train and are more willing to be sociable. Dogs also are the more intelligent pet. Dogs have always been more than just a great companion over the years. They have helped people walk, see, hear, and even have rescued people from fires. This is why police cats isn’t a term usually heard, Seeing Eye cats, or rescue cats. Whenever the owner talks to their dog they will tilt their head and seem to have an interest in what they are saying. One study found that a border collie called Rico had mastered the meaning of more than 200 words† (Zoidberg). But when you call a cat they don’t seem to recognize their name being called or don’t even care. This shows that dogs are far more intelligent and have an interest in their owner. Finally, dogs are more loyal and loving than a cat. Dogs have always from the start been loyal to their families. Having moved from living in the wild to living with humans and their need to be a part of a pack however has not changed. Bridget Webber states in the article â€Å"Why dogs are more loyal than cats† that â€Å"cats [tend to] move from household to household because they like to see if something better is on offer elsewhere. A dog would rarely behave in such a way. Once they have found a friendly owner they tend to stick by their side, rather than constantly keeping an eye open to spot if a better deal comes along. † So therefore, they will always be loyal to their family unit and particularly to their owner. It also seems that both cats and dogs show how loving they can be but do they have other motives? Usually if a cat cuddles up in your lab or rubs up against your leg it’s either because that person is warm or their food bowl is empty. But dogs can sit with someone or wait by the door for hours for their owners to come back home. Dogs do provide more of an unconditional love without any strings attached. Cats and dogs will always both be wonderful pets to have, but dogs are still more suitable, loyal, and loving of the two. Dogs have that special connection with their owners that cats don’t seem to always have. Most pet owners enjoy having a dog as a pet and they will always be man’s best friend.

Sompetition play in people’s daily life Essay

What part does competition play in people’s daily life? Do we put too much emphasis on competition? Are we more affected by its positive models or its less-desirable attributes? Does our economic system rely too heavily on winners and losers, or does the competitive marketplace spur new ideas and efficiencies? Now, I have a challenge for you. Think of one aspect of life that does not include competition. Do you find it hard to complete this task? If yes, why? This is because each day, in any number of ways, we are engaged in competition. Competition exists when there is a scarcity of a desired outcome. Thus, you may wonder, what part does competition play in our daily’s life? Competition makes people to improve themselves every day. Without competition, a lot of people will consider themselves the best in their majors. Though such feeling of confidence is important, it inevitably limits their intentions to develop the knowledge and technique. The appearance of another s pecialist will challenge the importance of the colleague in the same group and encourage him to learn more and do more. A good example is in an orchestra, if there is only one person who is good at playing violin, he may think himself the best and seldom consider improving his skill. Now a new player who is more talented and had achieved higher grade in violin comes into the same orchestra. The former player must face the fact that he is not the best there and needs to learn more and work more to keep up with new skill while the later one will keep practising so that he will always be better than the first musician. This in turn, motivates other players and thus higher the standard of the orchestra. Besides that, competition helps people to learn. It makes us strive for better. When there is a competition, we tend to give our best in urge to win. Even if we lose, we have learnt something.  We learnt from our failure and mistakes For example, in school, students work hard to overcome other people to be the top scholar in the school. If they did not do well in their tests, they will know what are their weaknesses and thus learn more so that they cam improve that. Without competition, students would be lazy and become incompetent. This is because competition is a motivational factor for a person to excel in any field. If there is no competition, students may not study to score good marks since there is no ranking. Moreover, competition builds teamwork. By working as a group to achieve something, we need to work effectively with other people. This in turn, improves our communication skills, socialising  skills and all round ability to work with other people. Therefore, competition makes us learn new things constantly. Furthermore, competition makes the manufactures invent better products which benefit the country and people. With the development of communication and transportation, merchandize can be easily tr ansported from one country to another country, as well as new technique can be easily learned from one region to another region. International competitions in a lot of fields appear. With a lot of brands of the same kind of commodity, customers always prefer the brand with better quality and cheap price. Therefore international competition makes the manufactures develop this kind of merchandize with the good quality and appropriate price using the better technique. As a result, the newest product with better quality and reasonable price improves the quality of people’s daily life and increase the popularity of the country as many people will know the newest product which can improve the quality of their lives is made by this country. If the country has high popularity, the people living in that country will have a better life. This is because more tourists will know and want to visit that country and thus generates income of the country. The country will then develop infrastr uctures which benefit its people. In conclusion, competition makes people to learn and improve and improve their standard of lives.

The Run-DMC Revolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Run-DMC Revolution - Essay Example (Biography, 2008) As for hip-hop, there is no question-Run-DMC, composed of Joseph "Run" Simmons, Darryl "DMC" McDaniel, and Jason "Jam Master Jay" Mizell, was and will always be considered as the king of this genre. With the group's unique vision and attitude, the foundation for rap music that was "on top" was laid, making hip-hop last for more than two decades now. (Chuck D, 2004) After releasing its debut single "It's Like That" in 1983, the flames for a revolution were fanned and it made hip-hop another front liner in mainstream music and caught the attention of television networks. It also brought the music genre to the platinum realm and into our own time's rap and rock frontier. (Biography, 2008) With six albums under their belts, namely Run-D.M.C. (1984), King of Rock (1985), Raising Hell (1986), Tougher than Leather (1988), Down With the King (1993) and Crown Royal (2001) (Biography, 2008), could very well be considered as the Beatles of hip-hop. According to Chuck D of the rap band Public Enemy, Run and DMC can be likened to Lennon and McCartney respectively, while Jam Master Jay was George and Ringo rolled into one. He even went as far as saying that Jay-Z, Black Star, OutKast, the Roots, and everyone else in hip-hop today can be traced back to Run-DMC. (Chuck D, 2004) And many seem to agree. ... which was quoted at the start of this paper, Ice-T also said, "Until Run-DMC I thought that hip-hop was something that was only going to be done in basements and in clubs. I went to a Run-DMC concert and they actually made me believe that hip-hop could be big. Rap was never at that level. We'd never seen it like that." (Chuck D, 2004) Run-DMC, run Run-DMC's roots may be traced to the working class New York community of Hollis, Queens. Run Simmons started honing his "rhyming apparatus" in 1982 in the suburban neighborhood. While barely progressing on the then unfinished hit single "It's Like That," he turned to his childhood friend Darryl McDaniels for help. Together, they were able to compose several songs, showing a promise of a very fruitful collaboration. (Biography, 2008) Russell Simmons, also known as Russell Rush and Run's older brother, signed up the band in 1983 to his own newly founded management company, Rush Productions, after Run-DMC signed a record deal with Profile Records the very same year. (Biography, 2008) Setting new trends by dressing in tight leather jackets and pants, fedora hats, bling-blings, and signature Adidas sneakers, the group inspired the hip-hop street image of the 1980's and most hip-hop artists still dress the same way 20 years later. (Chuck D, 2004) Not only that, the debut single "It's Like That" ruled the airwaves for more than a year, forcing several R&B stations to move the song from night-time rap shows to day-time regular shows, reflective of how much respect hip-hop was commanding then because of the rap act. (Biography, 2008) After the group has sold a quarter of a million copies, Run decided to recruit his old basketball and DJ buddy Jason Mizell. And so the rap act was completed. (Biography, 2008) As fate would

Technology Versus Humanity Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Technology Versus Humanity - Research Paper Example It was the period when electronics were missing portability. This breakthrough opened horizons for the music industry and was a revolutionary product. This trend is reminiscent of the revolution the iPod bought to the entertainment industry. It was the time when computers or digital content of any type was almost nonexistent for everyday consumers. Everything was done manually and the efficiency of every system was accordingly slow. Movies were exclusive to cinemas and the world depended on conventional televisions with now forgotten Video Cassette Recorder (VCR) for their home entertainment. For the year 1978, the Walkman was equivalent to the launch of a revolutionary product introducing its own category; just like the year 2010 is known as the year of the iPad (Francoeur 1).  With the development of new technology over time, our productive capabilities as well as our lifestyle have changed. We may not realize the transition because we have been a part of it and passing along wit h every development. But if we take a look down the memory lane and remember our lifestyles decades ago, we realize that we have come a long way and changed without realizing much. Technology has not only improved in entertainment sector as with the development from a Sony Walkman to smart phones we use today, but this change can be applied to every field. Resultantly, our lifestyles have changed with technology. We have more options to choose as to how we spend our leisure time and how we can improve our efficiency in work. This increase in efficiency has accelerated the rate of our learning and developing new technologies and innovations in every sector. Health, education, military and every field that we look at has come a long way. With the technology we have changed and the way we interact with each other has changed as well. The technology has improved our lifestyles in some ways; however, it has negative effects as well. These effects are not minor and they have changed us gr adually over time. We may not realize it, but this change in our behavior is at a very large scale. We can only comprehend the magnitude by comparing it with our values decades ago. Some of the negative effects of technology are highlighted; Technology has improved communications. Mobile phones has given us the capability to call our friends and loved ones any time we want. It provides us with limited interaction with our friends. Video calling is available through our mobile devices and computers. The technology has no doubt provided us with easy access to each other at all times. Our devices are our connection with the world. It all sounds good in theory and has made things easier. But, in reality our devices have replaced our friends. We only meet and interact with our contacts through our devices. The need for physical interaction has become a low priority. Physical interactions have reduced and our devices are our new best friends. We now prefer to stay at our homes and spend t ime with our entertainment systems. As a result, our social activities and interactions have changed and are being affected in a negative way. Face to face communication has decreased and has negative effect on our societies and behavior. Lack of this interaction has decreased personal growth. As per Wier, personalities have started to change over time and we see increase in numbers of introvert human beings (184). This is simply due to the fact that we need social interactions for our

Lifelong Learning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Lifelong Learning - Essay Example These include cousera, w3schools, OpenLearn Alison, Stanford, and MIT. W3schools for instance, offers courses on SQL, PHP, JavaScript, CSS, HTML5, Server Side Scripting, XML tutorials, Web building, jQuery and HTML Graphics. On the other hand, cousera offers a wider variety of courses depending on the field of study. These range from mobile application development, databases, and major programming languages including Java, Android, C++ and C. Various universities have partnered to offer these courses free of charge. The scope is wide covering virtually everything in the field of computing and technology. The classes I may be interested in taking include advanced database design and management, Database administration, data mining and data warehouse, software development and information & cyber security. I will also be keen to take a course in human-computer interaction that is offered by cousera. The reasons for choosing these courses is to be able to manage data at the highest level to ensure that I create efficient and reliable queries to retrieve information from the database. Software development is vital especially in Java so as to integrate the backend database and the front end to be able to deliver user-friendly applications that are robust. The human-computer interaction course comes in to cover the knowledge gap in providing products that will make navigation and usage easy for users. That is the basis of customer satisfaction in the use of those products. The security is important since technology is evolving and leaving loopholes. Thus persons with ill intentions access information from various institutions and use it for their own good (The Basics of Information Security, 2014). I want to be able to counter hackers and crackers. Consequently, I wish to be in a position of offering vital advice to the institutions in the security measures to implement in to protect it

Macroeconomics Problem Set Speech or Presentation

Macroeconomics Problem Set - Speech or Presentation Example From (b), it is evident that that velocity of money is equal to the nominal interest rate. Velocity will, therefore, grow if interest rate also grows. Hence, if interest rate is a constant velocity is also constant. Velocity will, therefore, grow if interest rate also grows. Money neutrality means that money supply does not affect real variables but only affects the nominal variables. An increase in the money supply will hence have an effect on all prices but not on the real GDP or real prices. Structural unemployment results from structural changes in the economy that makes employees obsolete. It is a lack of the required type of workers; there is a difference between the skills employers are looking for and the available employee’s skills. 3. Researchers at Purdue have collected data on the number of undergraduate Purdue students either involved in a relationship or uninvolved. Among involved students, 10% experience a breakup of their relationship each month. Among uninvolved students, 5% enter into a relationship every month. Illustrate the flow of students between the two states (involved and uninvolved) using a diagram. What is the steady-state fraction of residents who are

Real Estate Computing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Real Estate Computing - Essay Example Because real estate is so competitive, not having a solid plan in place to accomplish these things will set your business up for failure. There are many aspects involved with closing real estate transactions and a realtor must be able to rely on other professionals to work with them to accomplish their objective - which is to have smooth, successful closing. These professionals must know what they are doing, must be reliable as well as utilize ethical business practices. Working with the right professionals will help to ensure that your agency upholds a good reputation so that clients as well as other real estate professionals will want to do business with you. There are several methods that can be utilized to build your network of professionals and it will be advantageous for you to consider using a combination of the following examples: Your local board of realtors, the National Association of Realtors, your local chamber of commerce, online real estate forums such as ActiveRain.com, and networking organizations such as BNI or Leaders Business Network. These organizations will help you to identify the professionals that you are in search of and gain an assessment of their past performance which will allow you to seek out those with solid reputations. Establishing a loyal client base is the best way to ensure future business and "long term success". Really, it is the best way to avoid the ups and downs and the unpredictable nature of the Real Estate Industry (Stan, 2004). A detailed marketing campaign should be formulated, followed, and evaluated in order to accomplish this. This plan should include a variety of different methods that fit into your budget. Remember that real estate is a very competitive market, so your marketing efforts should be consistent and you should find a way that your agency can stand out in the crowd. This can be done by coming up with a catchy slogan or branding techniques. You really want people to know that you are sincere and that you care about their needs, in other words you are not just in this for the money. You will want to utilize a client data base program such as Outlook or Act and ensure that your data base is kept current and accurate. Your data base will be the lifeline of your business so you definitely want to make sure you back it up! The top methods for building your client base are: letting family and friends know what you are doing, target mailings to areas you may want to service, web sites, targeted Internet advertising, article marketing, opt-in email lists, print advertising and attend networking meetings. Building a solid client base takes time and you should not expect it to happen overnight. For example, you may need to do a mailing to a specific area for six months or more before you get any response. Networking is about building relationships, so don't expect to go to one networking or leads group meeting and walk out of there with a client - you need to show consistency and commitment. Remember, when you are developing your marketing plan you need to identify a way that you can stand out, be consistent,

Provide an analysis of the segmentation, targeting and positioning Essay

Provide an analysis of the segmentation, targeting and positioning strategy of a brand of your choice. Within your analysis you - Essay Example The STP strategy of Coca-Cola BlaK Segmentation strategy Coca Cola BlaK has been one of the major designs that Coca Cola developed to recover its declining sales during 2005. The BlaK drink was not only a flavour extension, but rather a stimulating blend of variety of coke refreshment, with quality coffee essence and lightly carbonated with an aim to appeal to adult consumers (singleservecoffee.com, 2006). The company targeted a specific segment for marketing BlaK, comprising of adult, 30-over savvy sophisticated achievers. Segmentation is a company’s key marketing dimensions to set strategic framework and are marketing processes used to identify the right customers of a company (Bygrave and Zacharakis, 2010, p. 170). Almost all companies segment its markets, breaking down the total market of a product or service in to distinct sub-groups (Lancaster and Reynolds, 2001, p. 68) such as Geographical (region/population density), demographic (age, sex, marital status, socio-economi c status, social class, religion etc), psychographic (life-style, personality, self-image etc) and behavioural (rate, volume, occasion, brand loyalty) (Stone and Desmond, 2007, p. 175). When it comes to the case of BlaK, the company identified an opportunity for BlaK from various regions including US, France, Spain, Czech Republic and later in Canada and UK. Demographically, its market was high-class, sophisticated achievers (Farr, 2007). The example of BlaK cola shows that extensive research often requires for an effective segmentation and targeting. As Loudon, Stevens and Wrenn (2004) pointed, a highly customized method of segmentation based upon extensive research and up to date data requires a high degree of expertise in research (p. 33). Coca-cola company has invested heavily in researches during 2002 about users and their perceptions of coke products. This research brought the significance of coke for adults who are between 30 and 50 age savvy people who are less likely to use Coca Cola’s other brands. The company executives thus thought to develop a unique drink merging ordinary coke with an energy drink or coffee essence aimed at adults over 30 savvy people (Wilbert, 2006). This research helped the company identify a hidden market opportunity and find a market segment which was until then left-untouched. Targeting Strategy Coca-Cola company targeted mainly the male demographics with ingredient of coffee essence. The Coca Cola BlaK was appealed mainly to older, more sophisticated and over-30 customers who are likely to spend more (Lamb, Hair and McDaniel, 2008, p. 258). A marketer may target a group of people or organizations by designing, implementing and maintaining a market mix in order to meet the needs of that specific group (Lamb, Hair and McDaniel, 2008, p. 220). When it comes to BlaK, the research conducted by Coca Cola found that there is an opportunity for a drink, being made quite unique with additional coffee essence, targeted for mal e-adults who are over-30 savvy and sophisticated achievers. the target was thus very specific. When a specific group is targeted, various marketing mixes like price, product, place and promotion can be developed according to the needs, behaviour and specific requirement of the targeted group. Ferrell and Hartline (2008) emphasized that a firm can adopt any or more

Ancient India Essay Example for Free

Ancient India Essay The era that brought India into the map of cultural prominence was during the rule of the Gupta Dynasty. The 4th and 5th century C. E. is considered as the Golden Age of India. The attainment of this Golden Age was made possible by the rule and influence of the Gupta Dynasty, which fostered the development of both the cultural and the political might of India during its time. The Gupta Rulers Chandragupta I, son of Ghatotkacha, was the fist imperial ruler of the empire situated in the north of the then India in the Vindhya Range. By marrying the princess of Licchavis, he formed alliance with the clan and begun power expansion. One of the important administrative systems that he established during his reign was the assembly of councilors that nominated his successor. The largest territorial expansion of the empire was undertaken during the reign of Samudragupta, son of Chandragupta I. His campaign established the largest political unit in South Asia at that time (Heitzman, 2007). He is considered as one of the greatest military geniuses in the history of India. One of his notable contributions was the establishment of coins made of pure gold. More than an exemplary military leader, he was also a patron of the arts as he was a celebrated poet and musician. He made coinage as the expertise of his time. Chandragupta II further expanded the empire through war conquests. His power was extended from coast-to-coast; and his reign became the economical high point of the empire through the establishment of trading capitals. During the reign of Kumaragupta I, the Pushyamitras tribe became powerful and had post threat to the empire. His successor, Skandagupta, considered the last of the great Gupta rulers, defeated the tribe but the territory was later on invaded by the White Huns. This defeat signaled the start of the decline of the empire. The Impact of the Empire The Gupta Dynasty is highly regarded for their contributions to the arts and culture of South Asia. Though the rulers cultural role was limited, their coinage expresses their being patrons of the arts (Heitzman, 2007). According to Hooker (1996), the eras cultural creativity is exemplified in magnificent architecture, sculpture and paintings. The paintings found in the Ajanta Cave are considered to be the most powerful works of the Indian art. Literature also flourished during that time of Indian history. The Gupta Empire had produced one of the greatest writers of poetry, Kalidasa. He is known for his lyric poetry and dramas, not only in India but also in Asian and even Western circles. It is also observed that the trading ports of the empire made the Indian culture dominant in the region. The period of the Gupta Dynasty was the period of â€Å"Greater India† (Hooker, 1996). Their cultural influences were extended through Burma, Cambodia and Sri Lanka. Another cultural legacy of the dynasty is the coinage system and effective administrative system. Their government was governed with only one taxation system centralized to the empire capital in Pataliputra. The kings remained to be the vassal kings where the entire kingdom was consolidated into single administrative unit (Hooker, 1996). The era of the Gupta Dynasty has not only uplifted the country politically but culturally as well. It has spilled over its influence in the South Asian region through wide range of trading products and services. Though it was later on buried in the pages of Indian history, its legacy to the Indian nation continue to this age. Its cultural heritage truly makes India one of the richest cultures in the world. References: Hooker, Richard (1996). The Age of the Guptas and After. Ancient India. Retrieved September 17, 2007 from http://www. wsu. edu/~dee/ANCINDIA/GUPTA. HTM Heitzman, James (2007). Gupta Dynasty. Microsoft ® Encarta ® Online Encyclopedia 2007. Retrieved September 17, 2007 from http://encarta. msn. com.

Reflective essay behaviour management

Reflective essay behaviour management The purpose of this paper is for prospective teachers to reflect on major issues that are associated either with positive or negative behaviour management. I have chosen to focus on the topic of behaviour management problems in a classroom setting, based on the particular experiences of an eight-year-old Afro- French boy called Dean, who grew up in a two-parent household in an urban neighbourhood. The case scenario presented in this assignment took place at The Kingston Primary School in London  [1]  where I did my eight week school placement. The observation took place in a third grade classroom, which consisted of about 26 pupils. The first question that this raises is why focus on behaviour management problems? The answer lies in a multitude of observations I have made in most schools I have worked in. Educators face a variety of challenges in the classrooms. Behaviour management is a major issue they are confronted with. Disruptive pupils are ubiquitous in a classroom setting. These pupils come to school with all sorts of emotional and behavioural problems ranging from defiance, attention deficits, aggression and hyperactivity, resistance to authority, temper tantrums and low motivation, which may cause them to be inattentive during lessons. No matter how well organized, interesting or thought- out a lesson is, it is difficult to hold their interest. Inappropriate behaviour is dealt with by using different methods of interventions to promote development and learning opportunities which enhance pupils self-control while promoting their positive achievement. The incident was as follows: Mrs Bucks has been a teacher at the school for 30 years. Dean, one of her pupils has a reputation for disrupting lessons. Whenever the whole class is on the mat, Dean has difficulties paying attention so he distracts himself with looking about the classroom instead of at the teacher or Smartboard. When a topic captures his attention, he is very alert and interrupts the lesson by shouting out the answer, mainly because he is too impatient to wait for his turn. Mrs Bucks is firm with him and disciplines him as a result of his behaviour. She sternly tells him to go move his name onto the Red Light Traffic System from the Green Light Traffic System. Annoyed she adds Dont you ever learn to raise your hand? With his head down he does what he is told, and calls her a stupid cow under his breath. Several of his peers hear this and giggle. Unfortunate for him, Mrs Bucks hears him too and sends him to stand outside in the corridor. In addition she angrily says I ha ve had enough of you, I do not think I want you in my class anymore. Defeated the boy walks out of the class with his head hung even lower. Dean disturbed the class with his hyperactivity. Surprisingly enough his inability to behave did not come into conflict with his academic performance. He was a very intelligent boy, and he proved this in oral and written work. He also was placed in the high attainer group. Different teachers interpret a child ´s action as a breach of discipline depending on who misbehaves, where it happens, when the incident took place, why it happened and so on. Age, class, gender and ethnicity may also play a role in judging the incident. Steed, Lawrence and Young (1983) suggest that educators perceive the incident more seriously if the pupil ´s misbehaviour recurs on a regular basis. (Watkins Wagner, 1987; pg 9). Although Mrs Bucks shouted a lot to get the children ´s attention, she was not quick to discipline her other pupils as often as she did Dean. In an attempt to explain why her pupils misbehave Mrs Bucks said Back in my day corporal punishment was used to keep pupils in place. Children had more respect then. That explanation gave me an insight into her personality. She had lower tolerance for him and labelled him as one of her problem children Was it an urgent need to try to cope and carry on with school life although she feel powerless with using the school disciplinary system? After 30 years of teaching, and with retirement looming, she openly admitted that she was ready to start a new chapter in her life. Unfortunately the strategies where largely ineffective as evidenced by the fact that Dean repeated the same disruptive behaviour every time he was under Mrs Bucks supervision. Some pupils are definitely harder to manage than others but teachers have to stay calm at all times. Pupils bring their own diversity into the classroom. Mrs Bucks should have regained her composure before she responded to Dean. Secondly she should have avoided humiliating, intimiding and isolating him from the rest of the class. Mrs Bucks is a very good teacher but the vital key that she was missing was building relationships with Dean. I had a feeling that after she had labelled him as a problem child she treated him thus. Disciplinary systems are applied in the classroom setting by educators in order to enable effective teaching and learning. Maintaining good discipline controls student behaviour which leads to the establishment of a healthy learning environment. In 1987, the Secretary of State Lord Elton, created a legislation (Discipline in schools, Reports of Committee of enquiry) for classroom teachers who were facing difficulties in the area of discipline (Adams, 2009).The publication of the Elton Report on Pupil Behaviour was altered however in 2005, by Sir Alan Steer who conducted a review (Learning behaviour) which put emphasises on how the quality of learning, teaching and behaviour in schools are inseparable issues (Ibid). The legislation was guidance to schools on procedures to overcome disruptive behaviour, which includes mild behaviour (interrupting the teacher, entering the classroom late) and aggressive behaviour (bullying and verbal/physical abuse) (Blandford, 1998). The legislation al so advices each school to formulate a whole school plan that includes a code of behaviour that encourages students to develop a strong sense of personal responsibility towards others and towards attending and participating in classes on a regular basis. The legislation emphasizes the role parents play in moulding the attitude which produces good behaviour in school, therefore it is very important that educators, parents and pupils communicate and work together on a regular basis (National Educational Welfare Board). Reacting to a students disruptive behaviours seems to have the effect of reinforcing that behaviour. This is evidenced by the strategy implemented a couple of days later when a substitute teacher, Mrs Hartbrot, takes over the class for the duration of the morning. The very first thing she did when all the pupils sat on the carpet was place Dean at the very back where he did not come into contact with any one of his peers. He was fidgeting about, shouting out answers, moving the nearby chairs about, but he got no response from her, so eventually he calmed down. Mrs Hartbrot took the time to understand Deans behaviour. As a result, she was in a better position to avoid or prevent any negative behaviour. Even when he shouts out the answer she praises him for saying the correct answer but will kindly remind him that he should raise his hand or if it recurs too often he is ignored, but once he actually raises his hand he is praised for it. Many teachers would agree that to prevent misbehaviour is by encouraging good behaviour. Certain behaviours are not harmful to others but rather annoying for educators, but they should take the time to decide whether or not to intervene or not. (Wright, 2005) Looking at Dean ´s home situation might explain a few things about him. Dean lives with both of his parents and 3 siblings, 2 older brothers and a baby sister. His father works and his mother is a housewife. Often he would come to school in the morning exhausted and bragging about how he spent the night playing with the Wii box accompanied by his teenage brothers or how his new puppy would cry all night so he would have to comfort him. It is questionable whether he suffers from middle child syndrome, a syndrome which generally arises when parents give the oldest and youngest child more attention than the middle child. Could lack of attention or sleep be the root cause of the problem? Whatever the case, Mrs Bucks could have diffused his inappropriate behaviour by meeting his needs. In 2005, the psychologist David Wright drew on the theories of Abraham Maslow to explain personality and human motivation. Maslow developed a theory called the hierarchy of human needs which include general types of needs such as physiological, safety, love, and esteem that need to be met. As long these needs are met, individuals can move towards growth and towards self-actualization. Maslows ideas can be applied to the classroom. Maslow would probably explain Dean ´s behaviour as seeking to fulfil the need to feel safe. The behaviourist strongly believes that humans are good hearted and that instead of making violence (or lying, stealing and cheating) they want love and peace. Violence is only used when their human needs are hindered. By Mrs Bucks saying that she does not want him to be part of her class anymore she excluded him, making him feel alone, unaccepted, and unsafe. That sense of belonging was thwarted. One of a teachers main responsibilities is to make a pupil feel safe and comfortable in their environment and she emotionally or physically abandoned him, leaving him to feel unloved and unworthy. Although he did wrong, belittling him in front of his peers was not necessary. Regardless of any behaviour issues, the boy should still have the feeling that he is a valued part of the class, that he is unique, respected and appreciated. Naturally children who experience traumas such as sexual/physical/ verbal abuse, neglect or in some cases those that are victims of war may experience a blockage in their mind that prevent them from functioning normally(Wright, 2005). Many children who are unhappy fail to inform us what is troubling them; instead they show us through their behaviour that they are unhappy, scared or troubled about something. Is Dean ´s constant disruptive behaviour a cry for help? Behaviourists, B.F. Skinner and Albert Bandura, also established different theories on the learning behaviour of human beings: the theoretical perspectives of O perant Conditioning Theory developed by B.F. Skinner and Social Learning Theory developed by Albert Bandura. The behavioural theory, which was promoted by Burrhus Frederic Skinner (originated in the first part of the 20th century), indicates that a persons behaviour is influenced by the environment. This is called operant conditioning, which is based on the idea that actions taken by a person have consequences, which can either result in reinforcement or punishment. The concept of reinforcement is rewarding desired behaviour with a stimulus (sweets or money) and this process encourages behaviour to be repeated. On the other hand, undesired behaviour is punished (McLaughlin Muncie, 2006). Skinner demonstrated the idea of operant conditioning through experiments involving animals (rats, dogs and pigeons) in which they were taught to respond by using food as positive reinforcement as a result of the response. In this way he trained or shaped animals into what he wanted them to become. Skinner transferred this knowledge to explain human behaviour. Unlike animals, however humans have the freedom to make choices of their own and can choose not to be easily manipulated. The main weakness in Skinners behaviourist model is the dismissal of the human variable. In Beyond Freedom and Dignity the psychologist (1972) reduces behaviour strictly to stimulus and response. Skinner fails to acknowledge that human beings have thoughts and feelings that influence them to react the way they do in certain situations. In Deans situation Skinner would have probably claimed that his behaviour was reinforced by his peers giggling, and that punishments would discourage from such misbehaviour in the future, but that was not the case. Dean got himself into trouble on a daily basis, and mostly for the same reasons such as interrupting lessons by being disruptive, defiant, and disrespectful. The boy was repeatedly disciplined whether it was moving his name on the Red/Green light traffic syst em, missing out on his break, or standing in the corridor. In the course of my eight week placement it appeared that he was becoming more and more rebellious with each punishment that he received. I realized that he was experiencing a sense of a sense of low self-esteem and worthlessness after he had been sent into the corridor. After the incident I approached him to see how he was doing and he told me he wanted to be moved into another classroom. Clearly, he knew he was not wanted and may have acted the way he did so that his chances of being moved into a new classroom were higher. He was hoping to receive some type of response, and he did although it was in the form of punishment. Dean was definitely seeking attention. At the age of four, D was diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). For that reason he was identified as a perfect candidate for an Individualised Educational Plan (IEP).The rude disruptive behaviour was unjustifiable, for children should know that all people should be treated with respect. However, if Mrs Bucks had taken the time to accept that he learns differently, and accommodated the differences, like Mrs Hartbrot did, she could have avoided the situation from escalating. All she saw was a child who failed to respond to her behaviour management methods and whose misbehaviour persisted over time. ADHD is also known as minimal brain dysfunction or hyperactivity. ADHD is a common behavioural disorder, which is recognized as an important social-medical problem among children but also found in adolescents. An estimated 3% to 5% of school aged children are diagnosed with the disorder, but boys are more likely to be affected than girls (Porter, 2003). Hinshaw (2000) states that having ADHD leads to a lack of emotional regulation, poor judgement, lack of organisational skills, problems with self-monitoring, a high rate of accidental injuries, impaired relationships with peers and family, emotional difficulties including depression and anxiety, and learning difficulties such as poor phonological awareness (despite having average intellectual abilities overall) (Porter, 2003; 152). Neuropsychological researchers imply that the cause of ADHD could be the result of family environment, the mothers health during pregnancy or genetic processes in the body. The use of medication such as Ritalin is an intervention that is used to help reduce the severity and frequency of challenging behaviour. Due to side effects (loss of appetite, nausea and headaches) other forms of non- medical intervention such as behavioural therapy or Individual Behaviour Plan (IBP), are also used to discipline behaviour with controlling discipline methods (Porter, 2003, Wright 2005). Skinners idea of negative and positive reinforcement is used in these therapy sessions by therapists to help patients overcome maladaptive behaviour. (Rabiner, 2010) Wright (2005) states that ADHD is not a learning disability but it will limit the childs school performance. The child may say something hurtful or act before s/he thinks about the consequences of her/his actions. Southall (2007, pg. 64) claims that often teachers, physicians and parents misdiagnose children with ADHD. They tend to forget that behaviour is a result of adapting to their environment they live in and things that they experience. Along with genes researchers believe that environmental factor contribute to children`s mental health. Southall (2005) suggests that in the 21st century there is a decline in families spending time together. Parents seem to have less time to monitor or teach their offspring. Parental involvement and lack of communication is affecting many families. Children are not encouraged to play outside anymore instead many hours are spend with the children glued on video games, on the computer or television screen, which with their fast pace tend to overlo ad their senses. It is not surprising then that their ability to focus in school is limited and that they have short attention spans. The brain gets used to being overstimulated by the flickering lights and the loud noises and fast moving action on the screen. By comparison school life is boring so they seek to create the same level of stimulation by being hyperactive and impulsive. (Southall, 2005) Banduras Social Learning Theory, also called observational theory, derives from Skinner ´s learning theory. The theory states that children learn by observing then imitating their models (peers, parents and teachers). In many cases children imitate their models, even behaviour that the latter would like to discourage such as smoking or cursing. Children are constantly learning whether it is good or bad behaviour by observation. Unlike the counterpart theory the learner has a more active role and it singles out self-regulation in explanation of behaviour. Rosenthal and Bandura (1987; 80) acknowledge in their theory that learning occurs through direct experience; a large body of research across different contexts and populations has supported the idea that observation of others influences individuals self-referent thoughts. Lickona (1991) points out that teachers should be role models, who exemplify the qualities they wish their pupils to follow such as responsibility, tolerance, fai rness, honesty and respect. (Earl, 2008) When trying to explain why Dean was disrespectful one has to consider his peers and the adults that influence him. If he is treated with little or no respect, he will probably not know how to treat others with respect. If for example his father or his siblings dismiss him as unimportant or belittle his mother, he too will see no wrong in disrespecting women in general. He needs someone to display good character, but if his teacher also belittles him, then the message that he gets is that it is fine to behave in that manner. Basically all children look to teachers who are fair, who admit when they are wrong and who are honest; all these qualities are ones that can be easily imitated by children. The influence of teachers can be life changing or damaging. Behaviour will always be an issue of concern, but it is our job as teachers to establish a supporting and trusting relationship with our pupils and their families in a collaborative manner. Only by promoting pupil`s self control and self esteem teachers can positively influence their learning, well being and academic achievement. Word count: 3,213